Google Essay

1.) An API user is given an account but is not able to view that account through the interface. The reason being: c. APIuserhasâ€Å"APIOnly†access 2.) API allows developers to use applications that: d. InteractdirectlywiththeAdWordsserver 3.) Bud would like to test new logic that uses API without modifying his live campaigns. Which tools would allow him to do this? b. AdWordsAPISandbox 4.) Which of the following allows advertisers to automate AdWords reporting and campaign management? a. UseofanAPIwebservice 5.) What is the benefit of the API? a. Advertisers can make dynamic changes to their AdWords accounts at scale. 6.) If someone wants to make frequent, specific changes to bids based on criteria for more than 100k keywords, what tool is most efficient? b. AdWordsAPI 7.) A user clicks on an ad for sneakers. He isn’t directed to a page with sneakers. He also receives : c. Linktoarelevantpageandremovethepop-up 8.) A good landing page for spring dresses would display? a. Severalcolorsofspringdresses 9.) A benefit of including a keyword within an ad text is that the keyword will: d. Itwillappearboldwithinthead 10.) To differentiate ads from competitors advertisers should: c. Includeprice,promotionsandacall-to-action 11.) How can advertisers determine the most profitable keywords within a company? b. Comparethecostincurredbyeachkeywordwiththeconversiondataforthatkeyword. 12.) You search keywords that should trigger your ad but your ad doesn’t appear. Why is this? a. Yourcampaigns are targeting a location outside where you are physically located. 13.) You want to increase the position of an ad but don’t want to raise the bid. How can you increase ad rank? c. Makechangestoimprovethequalityscoreofthead’skeywords. 14.) A high quality score can: b. Improveanad’sposition 15.) What is the most appropriate action to take if your keywords are below the â€Å"first page bid estimate?† a. Considerincreasingthebidoreditingthekeywordtoimprovequalityscore. 16.) You make edits to an ad and the position decreases. What was the cause? d. Theeditedversionislessrelevanttothekeywordswithintheadgroup. 17.) You have the same keyword in two different ad groups. The one to win within an auction will be the one with: b. Thebestqualityscore 18.) To improve the performance of an ad group on a search network, advertisers should create ad groups by creating: b. Keywordsthatarealsoincludedintheadtext 19.) In an AdWords account, which statistic is viewable for each ad group? c. Averagecostperclick 20.) Which of the following is the recommended action for new mobile ad campaigns? a. Useamobile-optimizedlandingpage 21.) An advertiser selling computer monitors is writing new ad text. Which line of ad text fits AdWords policy? d. 20-70%offLCDmonitors 22.) To achieve the best performance of text ads, which is a best practice? c. Includewordslikefindandsearchintheadtext 23.) What type of keywords tend to perform better with mobile ads? d. Shortgeneralkeywords 24.) A campaign that is targeting desktops is only performing well with text and image ads. The advertisers want to reach mobile devices. They should: b. Createaseparateadgroupformobileadswithintheexistingcampaign. 25.) If the query â€Å"Seattle Plumbers† is entered, Google will use the location term that is part of the query to show ads: a. TargetedtoSeattleregardlessoftheuser’sphysicallocation 26.) You are running a campaign that targets only France. However, you see clicks from users in Switzerland. Why might this happen? a. UsersinSwitzerlandaresearchingonGoogle’sFrenchdomain 27.) What is the quickest way to add a long list of locations to target in an AdWords campaign? d. Usethebulklinkinthecustomtaboflocationsettings 28.) Why would an advertiser use the bundles option when choosing location targeting? b. Toquicklyselectagroupofcountriesorterritoriestotarget 29.) Which tool allows you to test different combinations of website content for the purpose of improving conversion? c. Websiteoptimizer 30.) It is important to identify specific goals of an AdWords campaign so you can: c. Makestrategicchangestotheaccounttoimproveperformance 31.) A florist is advertising for five types of flowers, including red roses. When users type the phrase â€Å"red roses† Google shows the ad. What landing is more likely to result in a sale? a. Apageonthesitethatdisplaysonlyroses. 32.) Which of the following are key elements when optimizing a landing page for AdWords? b. Relevantandoriginalcontentthatclearlyrepresentsthebusiness. 33.) What report helps you identify which pages on your site should be optimized? d. Toplandingpages 34.) A user conducts a â€Å"laptop computers† search and clicks on an ad. Which landing page could be most relevant? d. Categorypagecontainingavarietyoflaptopcomputers. 35.) An advertiser can provide physical address location info about their business through Google places account. Ads that include this type of info are eligible to show on: a. Anynetworksselectedinthecampaign’ssettings 36.) Which feature distinguishes location extension from regional and customized campaign targeting? b. Customizedcampaigntargetingisrequiredinordertoenablelocationextensions. 37.) Business listings in Google places can be:

Evaluate the idea that gender and sexuality are socially constructed Essay

In recent years sociologists have been studying the great extent to which gender roles are learned. Many behaviors that have traditionally been thought to be genetically determined male or female behaviors turn out to be learned behaviors and therefore subject to change in future generations. In a summary of gender role socialization studies, David Shaffer (1979) points out that by the age of two, children have generally learned to recognize â€Å"maleness† and â€Å"femaleness† on the basis of clothing and hair styles. By the age of three, children usually have learned to prefer sex-typed toys and recognize that girls become â€Å"mommies† and boys become â€Å"daddies†. By school-age, children realized that they are expected to engage in appropriate gender behavior and if they do not, they will meet with disapproval from other children and adults. Many sociologists have personally questioned the value of such early gender-role learning and raised questions about how this learning can inhibit later opportunities in terms of education and career selection (Howe, 1979). To understand how gender and sexuality are socially constructed we must look at the adaptive and functional nature of socialization. One can look at the content of socialization as adaptive for the individual and functional for the society. As adaptive for the individual, the content of socialization involves knowledge necessary for individual to adapt to the changing situation of their daily lives, while, as a function for society, the content of socialization involves the knowledge necessary for its members to maintain a society as an ongoing entity. Knowledge of social rules, appropriate emotional behavior, social situations, technical knowledge, one’s self-identity, and communicative abilities give individuals an ability to adjust their behaviors to one another in the different groups and situations in which they encounter each other. Such adjustments are necessary for the ongoing existence of a society. Only people know how to adjust their behaviors to each other can the group activities and relationships which make up a society be maintained. Only with a socialized adult population can anything such as a society be said to exist. The particular content of socialization becomes highly important in terms of the make-up of the society that one is observing. If the content of socialization were to change, people’s activities and motivations would change, and clearly the society would change. So, on a sociological quest the content of socialization is something to which the sociologist should and must pay attention (O’Brien, 2001). Charles H. Cooley (1964), a pioneer of American socialization studies, referred to an individual’s self-concept as a â€Å"looking-glass self†. Cooley implied that our self-conceptions reflect our interpretation of the relations to our behavior of those around us with whom we interact. According to Cooley, we not how others respond to our actions, which produces in us a feeling about ourselves, which influences how we perceive ourselves. For instance a person who drops something and overhears another’s remark about how clumsy he is, may come to think of himself as a clumsy individual. We come to think of ourselves in terms of our understanding of how others think about us. It is through interaction that we come to apply to ourselves such labels as â€Å"kind† or â€Å"mean†, â€Å"awkward† or â€Å"graceful†. To see oneself as beautiful is to interact with persons who see you as meeting the criteria of beauty. Whether one sees oneself as an ugly duckling or a beautiful swan depends upon the flock with which one swims. As a naturalistic and empirical quest for understanding the various aspects of social reality is that everyone both influences and is influenced by society, sociology is ultimately a quest for self understanding. Humans beings are not isolated entities; we are not hermits who live apart uninfluenced by one another. Rather, we are social beings who can only be fully understood when the social context of our actions are taken into account and carefully studied. In order to carry out the quest for sociological knowledge it is necessary to have an understanding of the types, uses and limitations of the various sociological tools or methods. The sociological quest can be the appropriate sociological map or theory (Shaffer, 1979). Now I want to look at social life as a process and structure in the social construction of gender and sexuality. Social life involves processes of socialization, culture, and deviance. Learning how to act in society via socialization, developing and sharing of orientations toward social life via culture, and the negative sanctioning of inappropriate behaviors via the labeling process of deviance are universal processes, which are necessary to social life, and found in all societies. Although their particular make-up will vary from society to society, these three processes exist in all human societies. But, in addition to these processes, there also exists in all societies some relatively permanent patterns of organized social life that sociologists refer to as social structures. It is within and through social structures that the processes of socialization, culture and deviance take place. Just as the processes of human life take place in the structure of the human body so, too, the processes of society take place within and are influenced by social structures (Macionis, 1997). The most basic social structure around and through which social life takes place are groups; groups range in size from relatively small informal groups such as families, to large bureaucracies and formal organizations such as businesses and governmental agencies. All groups are composed of members who have met certain criteria for membership, who play certain understood roles in the group, and who have a sense of group belonging, which is sometimes termed a â€Å"we-feeling† or a â€Å"consciousness-of –kind†. Groups, related to one another in terms of their performing similar social activities, together from the social structures called social institutions. For example all the groups primarily involved in educational activities together form a society’s educational institution. It is through and in groups, and the institutions that they compose that the basic social processes of a society take place. It is in social groups that the learning of socialization takes place that cultural roles are shared and acted upon, and that deviance is ascertained and punished. People know how to perform roles in groups because they have knowledge of how to act which they developed in the process of socialization, because they share cultural understandings with other group members with whom they interact, because they have an understanding of what is considered deviant and unacceptable behavior in the various groups to which they belong (O’Brien, 2001). When we consider how females and males differ, the first thing that usually comes to mind is sex, the biological characteristics that distinguish males and females. Primary sex characteristics consist of a vagina or a penis and other organs related to reproduction, secondary sex characteristics are the physical distinctions between males and females that are not directly connected with reproduction. Secondary sex characteristics become clearly evident at puberty, when males develop more muscles, a lower voice, and more hair and height while females form more fatty tissue, broader hips, and larger breasts. Gender is a social and not a biological characteristic. Gender consists of whatever traits a group considers proper for its males and females. This is what makes gender vary from one society to another. Sex refers to male or female, gender refers to masculinity or femininity, so sex you inherit and you learn your gender as you are socialized into specific behaviors and attitudes (Gilmore, 1990). The sociological significance of gender is that it is a device by which society controls its members. Gender sorts us on the basis of sex, into different life experiences. It open and closes doors to power, property, and even prestige. Like social class, gender is a structural feature of society. Biology plays a significant role in our lives. Each of us begins as a fertilized egg. The egg, or ovum, is contributed by our mother, the sperm that fertilizes the egg by our father. At the very moment the egg is fertilized, our sex is determined. Each of us receives twenty-three pairs of chromosomes from the ovum and twenty-three from the sperm. The egg has an X chromosome. If the sperm that fertilized the egg also has an X chromosome, we become female. If the sperm has a Y chromosome we become male. That’s the biology. Now the sociological question is, does this biological difference control our behavior? Does it make females more nurturing and submissive and males more aggressive and domineering? (Macionis, 1997) Almost all sociologists take the side of â€Å"nurture† in this â€Å"nature vs. nurture† controversy. The dominant sociological position is represented by the symbolic interactionists. They stress that the visible differences of sex do not come with meanings built into them. Rather each human group determines what these physical differences mean for them and on that basis assigns males and females to separate groups. It is here that people learn what is expected of them and are given different access to their society’s privileges. Most sociologists find compelling argument that if biology were the principal factor in human behavior all around the world we would find women to be one sort of person and men another. In fact, ideals of gender vary greatly from one culture to another and as a result, so do male-female behaviors. For example the Tahitians in the South Pacific show a remarkable contrast to our usual expectations of gender. They don’t give their children names that are identifiable as male or female, and they don’t divide their labor on the basis of gender. They expect both men and women to be passive, yielding and to ignore slights. Neither male nor females are competitive in trying to attain material possessions (Gilmore, 1990). Society also channels our behavior through gender socialization. By expecting different attitudes and behaviors from us because we are male or female, the human group nudges boys and girls in separate directions in life. This foundation of contrasting attitudes and behaviors is so thorough that, as adults most of us think, act and even feel according to our culture’s guidelines of what is appropriate for our sex. Our parents are the first significant others who teaches us our part in this symbolic division of the world. Their own gender orientations are so firmly established that they do much of this teaching without even being aware of what they are doing. This is illustrated by a classic study done by psychologists Susan Goldberg and Michael Lewis (1969). They asked mothers to bring their 6 month old infants into their laboratory to supposedly observe the infant’s development. Secretly these researchers also observed the mothers. They found that the mothers kept their daughters closer to them. They also touch and spoke more to their daughters. By the time the children were 13 months old, the girls stayed closer to their mothers during play, and they returned to them sooner and more often than did the boys. When they set up barriers to separate the children from their mothers, who were hiding toys, the girls were more likely to cry and motion for help, the boys ere likely to try to climb over the barrier. Goldberg and Lewis (1969) were able to conclude that in our society mothers unconsciously reward their daughters for being passive and dependent, their sons for being active and independent. These lessons continue throughout childhood. On the basis of their sex, children are given different kinds of toys. Preschool boys are allowed to roam farther from home than their preschool sisters, and they are subtly encouraged to participate in more rough and tumble play. Even get dirtier and to me more defiant. Such experiences in socialization lie at the heart of the sociological explanation of male/female differences (O’Brien, 2001). In today’s society mass media plays a vital role in gender and sexuality roles. Sociologist stress how this sorting process that begins in the family is reinforced as the child is exposed to other aspects of society. Especially important today are the mass media, forms of communication that are directed to large audiences. Powerful images of both sexes on television, music and the internet reinforce society’s expectation of gender. Television reinforces stereotypes of the sexes. On prime time television, male characters outnumber female characters by two to one. They also are more likely to be portrayed in higher status positions. Viewers get the message, for the more television that people watch; the more they tend to have restrictive ideas about women’s role in society. The expectations to the stereotypes are notable and a sign of changing times. Video games have some youths spending countless hours playing games. Even college students, especially males, relieve stress by escaping into video games. But more studies into the affect of these games on the ideas of gender are needed. Because the games are the cutting edge of society, they sometimes also reflect cutting edge changes in sex roles (Macionis, 1997). As women change their roles in society, the mass media reflects those changes. Although media images of women are passive, subordinate, or as mere background objects remain and still predominate, a new image has broken through. Exaggerating changes in society, this new image nonetheless reflects a changing role of women, from passive to active in life outside the home, from acquiescent to dominate in social relations. Books, magazines, DVD’s and video games are made available to a mass audience. And with new digital advances they have crossed the line form what we traditionally think of as games to something that more closely resembles interactive movies. Sociologically, what is significant is that the content of video games socializes their users. Gamers are exposed not only to action, but also to ideas as they play. Especially significant are gender images that communicate powerful messages, just as they do in other forms of mass media (O’Brien, 2001). Lara Croft, an adventure seeking archeologist and star of Tomb Raider and Tomb Raider 2, is the essence of the new gender image. Lara is smart, strong, and able to utterly vanquish foes. With both guns blazing, she is the cowboy of the twenty-first century, the term cowboy being purposely chosen, as Lara breaks gender roles and assumes what previously was the domain of men. The old remains powerfully encapsulated in the new. Lara is a fantasy girl for young men of the digital generation. No matter her foe, no matter her predicament, Lara always is outfitted in form fitting outfits, which reflect the mental images of the men who created this digital character. Their efforts have been so successful that boys and young men have bombarded corporate headquarters with questions about Lara’s personal life. Lara had caught young men’s fancy to such an extent that more than 100 web sites are devoted to her. The final reward of the game is to see Lara in a nightie one can question that regardless of tough girl images just how far stereotypes have been left behind (Macionis, 1997). Gender stratification gives males and females unequal access to power and prestige and property on the basis of sex. It is closely associated with class and caste stratification and is a related phenomenon of gender stratification. Some but not all societies have men and women as unequal with the latter being more seen. Sexual in equality is characteristic of societies that are stratified in other ways as well. Women have historically occupied a position of inferiority to men in the class structured societies of the Western world. Sexual inequality may sometimes be seen in societies that are not otherwise stratified, in such instances men and women are always physically as well as conceptually separated from one another. The rise of gender stratification often seems to be associated with the development of strongly centralized states. Because social stratification of any kind tends to make life oppressive for large segments of a population, the lower classes are usually placated by means of religion, which promises them a better existence in the hereafter. Gender inequality is not some accident; instead it is the institutions of each society that work together to maintain the group’s particular forms of inequality. Customs throughout history both justify and maintain these arrangements. Although men have resisted sharing their privileged positions with women, change has come (O’Brien, 2001). By playing a fuller role in the decision making processes of our social institutions, women are going against the stereotypes and role models that lock males into exclusively male activities and push females into roles that re considered feminine. As structural barriers fall and more activities are engendered, both males and females will be free to pursue activities that are more compatible with their abilities and desires as individuals. As they develop a new consciousness of themselves and their own potential, relationships between females and males will change. Certainly distinctions between the sexes will not disappear. There is no reason for biological differences to be translated into social inequalities. The reasonable goal is appreciation of sexual differences coupled with equality of opportunity which may lead to a transformed society.

Satellites in space

Jeremy Curtis is an engineer and business development manager for space science at the Rutherford Appleton laboratory (RAL) in Oxfordshire. His job includes on the joint European telescope for X-ray astronomy (JET-X), due to have been launched in 1999 on the Russian Spectrum-X spacecraft. He says â€Å"I trained as a mechanical engineer, but I find space engineering exciting because I have to work with all kinds of experts such as astronomers, physicists, designers, programmers and technicians working around the world†. He was sponsored by RAL during his university degree and then spent several years on designs for a large proton synchrotron (a machine for accelerating protons to very high energies) before moving over to space instrument design. In the following passage he describes some of the aspects of space engineering. Why satellites? Getting spacecraft into orbit is a very expensive activity with typical launch costs generally measures in tens of thousands per kilogram. So what makes it worth the bother? There are three key reasons. First, a satellite is a good vantage point for studying the earth's surface and atmosphere – just think how many aircrafts would be needed to photograph the whole of the earth, or how many ships to monitor the temperature of the oceans. Second, if we want to study most of the radiation coming for distant parts of the universe we have to get above the atmosphere. The earth's atmosphere absorbs almost everything that tries to go through it – from X-rays to ultraviolet and from infrared to millimetre waves. Only visible light and radio waves can get through it. In fact, even visible light suffers – convection in the earth's atmosphere makes stars seem to jump about or twinkle, blurring telescope images, so a telescope in space produces sharper images than possible from earth. Finally, and not least, a communications satellite can beam TV pictures across the globe and link telephone users from different continents. The problem with space Once you've got through the huge trouble of expense of launching your satellite, a new set of problems confront you in space. First, a typical spacecraft may need several kilowatts of power – but where do you plug in? The only convenient renewable source of power is the sun, so most spacecrafts are equipped with panels of solar cells. You can see these on the Infrared space observatory (ISO). Unlike earth there is no worry about what to do on cloudy days, but batteries are still needed for periods when the satellite is in the earth's shadow (usually up to an hour or two per orbit) and the satellite has to be continually steered to keep the panels pointing at the sun. So now we have our spacecraft floating in orbit and pointing to face the sun all the time. Although the solar cells provide partial shade from sunlight the surface still starts to heat up, and with no air to convect the heat away the temperature can rise dramatically. To add to the difficulties, the other side of the spacecraft faces cold space (at about 3k or -270à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) and so begins to cool down, unchecked; this would distort the structure, wreck the electronics and decompose the materials that make up the spacecraft. So most surfaces of the spacecraft are covered in â€Å"space blanket† – multilayer insulation made of metallised plastic which reflects the radiation away and insulates the spacecraft. This is crinkly shiny material. 1.2 Studying with satellites The UoSAT satellites are very small, relatively low-cost, spacecraft whose purpose is to test and evaluate new systems and space technology and to enable students and amateur scientists to study the near-earth environment. They are designed and built by the university of Surrey spacecraft engineering research unit. UoSAT, also known as Oscar 11 has sensors to record the local magnetic field, providing information about solar and geomagnetic disturbances and there affects on radio communications at various frequencies. Instruments on board also measure some 60 items relating to the satellites operation. These include; the temperature of its faces, its batteries and other electronic devices; the current provided by its solar arrays; and the battery voltages. It can also receive store and transmit messages to simple radio receivers anywhere in the world. UoSAT's orbit takes it over both poles at a height of about 650km above the earth's surface, and the spinning of the earth allows it to receive data about six times a day. Each UoSAT spacecraft is designed to last about 7 years. Even small spacecrafts such as these need electricity to run all onboard systems, form the computer that controls it all, to the radio transmitters and receivers that send and receive all data to and from ground stations on the earths surface. UoSAT's are small, each with a mass of typically 50kg and about 0.5m across. For comparison, JET-X is about 540kg in mass and about 4.5m long. Communications satellites are larger still, with masses of typically 2 to 5 tonnes. At the top en of the scale is the proposed International Space Station (ISS) – a co-operative venture between 13 nations, including the UK. Construction and testing started in1995 and completion is due in 2002. The completed station will have a mass of about 470 tonnes, measure 110m from tip to tip of its solar arrays, and have pressured living and working space for its crew of six almost equal to the passenger space on two 747 jet airliners. It will have a demand of about 110kw. 1.3 Spacecraft power systems Schematic diagram of a spacecraft power system The below figure shows three main elements in a spacecraft power system. The primary source involves the use of fuel to produce electrical power. Primary sources include fuel cells in which a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen produces electricity (with drinking water as a useful by-product), and radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG's) in which a radioactive decay process produces heating in a thermoelectric module that generates electricity. In spacecraft, the most common primary source s the photovoltaic cell, powered by solar radiation; here the initial fuel is protons in the sun, which undergo nuclear fusion. The secondary source is the energy storage system – usually a set of batteries. Sometimes regenerative fuel cells are used in which power from solar arrays electrolyses water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases during the â€Å"charge† cycle, followed by hydrogen and oxygen recombining to make water during the â€Å"discharge† cycle. n electronic power control and distribution unit controls and adjusts the voltage and current inputs and outputs, often using primary and secondary sources together to boost the overall output power. There are other systems available and these are shown in figure 8 in the textbook, on page 69. Here are some listed: * Chemically fuelled turbines and reciprocating engines. * Chemical turbines and batteries. * Batteries. * Cryogenic hydrogen/oxygen expansion engines. * Cryogenic engines and fuel cells. * Fuel cells. * Nuclear dynamic systems. * Solar and nuclear dynamic systems. * Photovoltaic and radioisotope thermoelectric systems. A useful link to research this further is http://spacelink.msfc.nasa.gov/ Question 1, Page 70 Using figure 8 on page 69, decide which would be the most suitable power source(s) for a spacecraft needing; (a) 1kw power output for just one week. Cryogenic engines and fuel cells. (b) 10kw for 10 years. Solar and nuclear dynamic systems. The most common primary source of energy used in satellites is the photovoltaic cell or solar cell. Hundreds of thousands of such cells are connected together to make up solar arrays. UoSAT 2 and the ISS have many arrays of solar arrays attached to them. Solar cells have one important characteristic; they only generate electricity when illuminated. Orbiting satellites undergo between 90 and 5500 eclipses, moving into the shadow of the earth, each year. The former is typical of a geostationary telecommunications satellite, the latter of a satellite is in a low orbit like UoSAT 2. The ISS will have sixteen thirty minute periods of shadow each day. The secondary power supply is therefore vital, because during eclipse electrical power has to be supplied by batteries. There are also occasions when batteries are needed to provide power in addition to that of the solar panels. The spacecraft's solar panels are used to recharge its batteries when it emerges into sunlight. To do this they must provide a high enough voltage – higher than the batteries own voltage. (A charger for a 12v car battery provides about 30v.) The power system must therefore be carefully designed to ensure that the solar panels can charge the batteries and that the batteries can operate the electrical equipment on-board. So what voltage does a solar cell provide? How does this voltage vary with the brightness of the light? How can we connect up solar cells in order to charge batteries and operate equipment? These are questions I will explore in part two of this unit.

Analytical reviews Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Analytical reviews - Assignment Example His approach is to focus on the major ideas that bind a civilization together, rather than territorial advance through conquest or any technical achievements. Book 1 focuses on the geneses of civilizations and their disintegration. He does not have a universal explanation for this process, but rather explains how each civilization faces its own challenges and comes up with its own solutions. The variation in different outcomes is to be expected, and decline comes when a civilization ceases to produce the necessary resilience to face whatever problems it encounters. A similar undertaking was done by the German historian Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) but with a more pessimistic approach, looking at contemporary Western civilization and foreseeing its downfall. His book Decline of the West was written just before and during the First World War, which no doubt colored his view of things somewhat, given the slaughter of thousands of soldiers and civilians in the first fully mechanized war i n human history. Spengler conceived of civilizations as all following the same general pattern of rise, reign and fall, and proposed that this is a natural life cycle, much the same as that of a biological organism. He covers a much smaller range of civilizations, in a range of nine, culminating in Western civilization which he sees as being in a state of decline. An interesting and possibly prophetic perspective is given on the Islam and the Arab nations, (volume 2, pp. 191-193) which he regards as having been stopped in its tracks in ancient times by the advance of Graeco-Roman civilization. Spengler died before the worst of Nazi atrocities occurred and this may explain his rather pro-German stance. His approach is too broad-brush to contribute much to our understanding of history and both his work and Toynbee’s more extensive study suffer from too much emphasis on philosophy and culture, and too little understanding of economic factors. Both authors also writer from a west ern perspective, and of the two Toynbee is the least objective, since he interprets moral issues from a strong Judeo Christian perspective. Their great contribution to the field of history is that they extended the perspective beyond national boundaries and tried to analyse things on a grander scale, even though they did not achieve a fully global perspective. Part 2: Culture and development. In the introduction to his book The Wealth and Poverty of Nations David Landes takes a global perspective and argues that an age of division between East and West in world history has now been replaced by a division between North and South. He contrasts the wealthy developed world (largely northern and western) with the less developed southern half of the globe and tries to work out why this is the case. Two common hypotheses are rejected as too easy, namely that the western nations were superior in ability and industriousness, which gave them an edge over other nations, or conversely the weste rn nations were more ruthless and greedy (p. xxi). Landes concludes that there is an element of truth in both, and that â€Å"Things are always more complicated than we would have them† (p xxi) and proceeds with a Eurocentric approach, having acknowledged this fact at the very outset. Paul Gootenberg in the introduction of his book Andean Cocaine:

Aristotle= form, matter, soul, body, potential, capacity, actuality, Essay

Aristotle= form, matter, soul, body, potential, capacity, actuality, process, end, exercise - Essay Example The soul is the form because it determines the actual being of the lady while her physical body is the matter that has potential of being. The fetus in the womb of the lady is a potential being because it cannot use its potential of being (Witt675). The unborn child is in the process of being because it has potential to develop into independent being. When the baby will be born, the fetus will have become the end because it will be able to exercise its capacity of a being to attain an independent form. However, both mother and the fetus form a composite and are a form and matter. In conclusion, the composite substance of a being can be described in different ways. Its body is the matter while the soul is its form. Soul determines the actual being of the person since it determines the end. It enables being to exercise its capacity of being. The body is a matter that has potential to develop a capacity through a defined

Concept of Weight Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Concept of Weight - Essay Example Weight can be described and defined in a physical as well as social context. It is referred to as mass in law, in colloquial uses and in commerce. However, I would wish to describe and define it on a medical perspective. Weight is one of the most important issues as far as quality health care is concerned. It can be defined as the body mass index of an individual, or the heaviness of an object, or simply mass. It is a very essential issue when examining health matters on individuals because it is known medically to be a major contributor and cause of various conditions. The health of any individually changes significantly by change of BMI. The weight of a person keeps increasing, if little concern is considered, to a point where their lives start changing for the worse. Too much weight is capable of causing illnesses, which would never have been encountered had the weight been checked constantly. Weight, therefore, plays a big role in the health-care sector and is always recommended as one of the weapons used in health-care to assist clients maintain a healthy body. According to medical experts, including nurses and doctors, it is advisable to always keep low BMI’s so that even when sicknesses strike, it is easier to treat and get rid of them. A high body mass is dangerous to an individuals health (Alters & Schiff, 2011). As a medication caution, the first test for persons in hospitals is weight checking. These weights are used to determine whether the patient’s body mass is capable of posing danger to their health and whether it is the reason for the condition of the patient if sick. There are various ways used by the health-care providers to assist patients and clients to maintain or change their body weight. Hospitals and other health-care institutions encourage safe body mass and weight, and they provide ways of managing it. Health-care sector is commonly

Argumentative paper on depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Argumentative paper on depression - Essay Example These feelings may be directed towards people or things they once enjoyed or liked. Now the real question comes up; how can depression be treated? Currently, many experts question how precisely can depression be treated, and they have come up with many different ideologies and theories. The most commonly used kinds of treatment of depression are psychotherapy, administration of anti-depressants and hospitalization. Depression comes in many forms and shapes hence implying different modes of treatment according to the shape and form of the disorder. The different types of depressions have distinctive symptoms, causes, and effects. Being aware of what type of depression is affecting a patient can help to manage these symptoms and get the most effectual treatment. Moods or emotions of the patient change with the environment and experience, sometimes reflecting happiness and in other times reflecting sadness. In emotionally healthy people, moods are controllable, but people with mental depression get controlled by the mood itself in both thoughts and body. Mental depression involves mood disarray characterized by specific symptoms that characteristically occur due to chemical variations in normal brain operation. The most common and enthusiastically identifiable symptom of a depressed individual is sadness, melancholy, or desolation; however, an individual with clinical depression encounter more th an transitory sadness. Oftentimes it is logic of exhaustion or short of any energy at all that indicates the inception of mental depression (Roy 3). Other common symptoms comprise persisting sadness, emptiness or anxiety that may be convoyed by thoughts of victimization, hopelessness, worthlessness and/or helplessness. The person might lose concern in activities that were once traditional or complain of insufficient energy or inability to focus. Physical symptoms that do not resolve despite treatment, feelings and ideations of death or suicide,

Developing Leadership Skills Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Developing Leadership Skills - Assignment Example In 1970s Robert Greenleaf coined this term while describing a leader who wants to serve people. The leader of this mold would be noble and help people around him without any desire for returns. He is highly democratic, selfless and achieves power on the basis of ethical values and right approach; but would never demand it. These leaders would not resent if leadership and power are above their reach. They are just, honest and sincere in their work and do not expect returns. They do not compete for leadership; mostly leadership comes to them unsolicited. They are neither power-grabbers nor power-snatchers. Servant leader would serve first and may or may not be a formal leader. It is about collaboration, trust, listening, foresight, honesty, sincerity, and ethical use of power and empowerment. Greenleaf said "It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. He or she is sharply different from the person who is the leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions" http://www.greenleaf.org/leadership/servant-leadership/What-is-Servant-Leadership.html He thought that in the late 20th century, traditionally autocratic and hierarchical leaderships are vanishing and Servant leadership with ethically caring involvement is emerging. It is succeeding through trust, bravery, and forgiveness. Greenleaf Centre for Servant leadership lays down the mission statement with 10 principles: "Listening, empathy, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people and building community". "Servant-leaders are aware that the shift from local communities to large institutions as the primary shaper of human lives has changed our perceptions and caused a send of loss. Servant-leaders seek to identify a means for building community among those who work within a given institution" http://www.butler.edu/studentlife/hampton/principles.htm I am of the opinion that all these principles suit my temperament and the ultimate goals I have and they would shape my career in life. In this context, I am impressed by Peter Shelden, whom I met in Pakistan during my last visit thereafter earthquakes. Peter Shelden is an American, in charge of a non-government organization that is working in the earthquake hit areas of Kashmir. It is difficult to see a worse example of a disaster compared to what happened 'when the mountains moved'. In October 2005, an earthquake left three million people homeless and 200,000 people injured in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and North-West Frontier Province. Peter's team was providing health services, psycho-social service, and training and rehabilitation. Understandably, it was not an easy job. They were braving the Himalayan winter in temporary sheds and tents and the country was not theirs and the suffering people were not their countrymen. They owed nothing to this suffering lot. Still, throughou t my stay there, trying to help the people in distress, I had seen an amazing commitment in him, with a focussed desire to serve humanity, irrespective of race, region, and color. Â  

Analysis of Democratization Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analysis of Democratization - Research Paper Example Freedom of self-expression has a great relation to the freedom of speech, together of which enables individuals to air their views and criticize unethical proceedings in the given society. Freedom of self-expression is, in fact, the foundation of every other form of democracy (Camp 16). With self-expression, individuals are able to rebuke tyrannical leadership and rules that apply immense force in handling citizens’ affairs. Freedom to self-expression is an empowering tool to enable the individual citizens overcomes any form of discrimination that has a direct or indirect effect on their personal developments. Inglehart and Christian describe that with the freedom to self-expression, individuals can also raise alarm over economic inequalities that are particularly detriment to their individual developments and society as a whole (20). Freedom to self-expression enables individuals discloses any forms of corruption that occurring in a given society and threatening to corrode th e resources of the victim society. The developmental process of the individuals’ democracy also requires assurance of freedom of association. Freedom of association empowers individuals to decide and interrelate with groups of their individual choice. As illustrated by Camp, freedom of association helps individuals form strategic movements tasked with purposes of ensuring collective representation of ideas and views of a given group that feels underserved and unrecognized by the ruling authority in a given society (21). Furthermore, freedom of association as a tool towards democratization helps individuals with lower say in a given society team up and form groups capable of challenging a given repressive rule or leadership in a particular society. Individual democratization process that defines the whole democracy has to encompass and cover religious rights (Inglehart and Christian 24). Allowing individuals’ freedom of religion ensures the spiritual development of the given individuals in the most appropriate direction. Freedom of religion is a tributary to freedom of association as it advocates for allowing individuals to initiate and interrelate with groups of their personal choice. The democratization process also has to take into consideration the economic equality among individuals of a given country. Economic issues and gaps have been the epicenter of wars in various societies and particularly among individuals. Ensuring economic equality will empower individuals to have a say on the manner of handling a country’s resources for the best of developing the entire society or community. Institutional democratization stems and develops from individual democratization. Democracy in institutions starts with freedom of self-expression among constituent employees and parties. With self-expression, individuals within a given institution have the power to share their views and even spell out dissatisfaction with managerial techniques and proces ses (Krishna 16). Allowing freedom of self-expression to individuals, institutions are likely to benefit from innovation and creative ideas exhibited by individuals in a particular organization. Institutional democracy has to base on the freedom of association among the constituent employees and parties. Institutional democracy also needs to take into consideration gender issues. Many organizations have faced problems compounded by disparities in gender biases and inequality.

Math problem Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Math problem - Speech or Presentation Example Middle is the value that represents the center of a variable. In this case, both the median (3.7) and the mode (3.7) are in middle. This list is negatively (left) skewed as the value 1.0 is very low compared to all other values 4.0, 3.7, 3.7 and 3.7, and thus has an effect on average value. We take average value as middle for normally distributed data, however, in this case, data are left skewed, and therefore, appropriate choice for middle is median. The mode value is rarely taken as a middle value. If, I look at the routine that I do every day at work, the average time it takes to complete it matters most. The reason for this that there is not much variation in time for doing the routine work (it is a habit), therefore, average time represents the middle. However, in some cases when there is a problem, the time take more than usual, in such circumstances, the median is more appropriate because time taken will be right skewed. For finding the middle of process, I look first whether distribution is normal or not. For normal distribution, the average represents the middle of the process. If distribution is skewed, than the median represents the middle of the process. The normal distribution is symmetric and bell shaped. The scores in a normal distribution are more concentrated in the middle than in the tails. It is an example of continuous probability distribution. It has two parameters, the mean mu and the standard deviation sigma that is used to specify a distribution completely.   If we look at a process and can use a tool to normalize the data, or convert it to a normal distribution, than we will be able to know the range of the values for the process. By using a normal distribution, we can set an upper and lower limit for the process mean so that anytime the process mean is outside this range (above upper limit or below lower limit), we will know that there is some problem and the process

Coaching youth sports Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Coaching youth sports - Research Paper Example Most developed economies spend millions of dollars in promoting sports, training the new comers to it and making people aware of the importance as well as over all benefits of sports activities. This piece of research paper addresses basic techniques in teaching of softball to young players and positive ways of identifying appropriate skills in individual players and explains how sports can develop physical skills as well as self esteem in young people. Coaching Techniques for Softball As Softball is a team sport, it requires using of specific evaluation tools and techniques that can also be used to assess the developments of the individual parts to make up the whole of the team (American Sport Education Program, p. 9). Improving basic physical skill is key element to success of any sport, and therefore, it is highly important that all the techniques and tactics that are planned to coach softball players must be useful to improve the physical skills of the players. Similarly, there a re some non-physical skills like remembrance, mental capacity, communication skill, character training etc that are also important for effective performance in any sport and these are also to be considered while coaching is given to softball players. Evaluating the effective techniques for coaching softball requires understanding what are the essential physical skills required for softball. They are strength, speed, agility, flexibility and power (American Sport Education Program, p. 9). Techniques and tactics can be different from team to tem, from coach to coach, but all these techniques must be able to boost the above mentioned essential physical skills. Prior to starting physical training and coaching of physical skills, the trainers or coachers must convey messages regarding the importance of the coaching, motivate the athletes to improve in their present skills, try to make all the coaching techniques to be given to athletes are unbiased and constant and convey the feedback of the coaching to the, etc. In softball techniques, Hitting coaching is perhaps most important one. It involves quickness, strength and hand-eye coordination etc. While coaching to help players better hit, it must be carefully considered to make them comfortable in proper grip and stance as well (American Sport Education Program, p. 22- 24). Another important technique of coaching is stride, which is a controlled forward move in the direction of the pitcher in order to help the hitter transfer her weight while she swings. Coachers should also train how the players can effectively position their bat and how can they be angled well. Teaching the proper hand-position in bat is also highly important. In each and every step, through out every different move forward and along with different types of hitting, the coacher should teach different stance, hand position and better grip tactics to the players so that they can have gradual improvements in overall moving and other important parts o f the softball game. A well structures and effective coaching of softball with different techniques must be well-planned, considering various programs like a) monitoring academic progress, b) arranging team program, c) creating goal chart, d) administering coaching, e) cooperating with team-players etc (Veroni and Brazier, p. 36). Ways to identify skills appropriate to individuals Players are individually different in terms of their age, gender and physical strength and therefore certain skills are more appropriate to some

Contemporary Views of Leadership Essay Example for Free

Contemporary Views of Leadership Essay Contemporary Views of Leadership Somina Membere University of Phoenix Commonalities and Disparities of Contemporary Views of Leadership In evaluating the various contemporary leadership models, I will start with a definition of leadership within the contemporary context. There have been several definitions, research studies commonalities and disparities about leadership and leadership theories. According to Burns (1978), the father of contemporary leadership thinking, leadership is the leader encouraging the follower to act for the goals that characterize their common beliefs and for the benefit of both follower and leader. According to Wren (1995), the complexity and variation of leadership definition stems from all the variables involved including the leader, the followers and the circumstances. Bass (1985) defines leadership along the lines of transforming followers, by creating visions, goals and the path for followers to the achieving the goals. The brilliance of leadership lies in the ability of the leader to transform him and to act on behalf of the interest of both himself and the follower. Fiedler (1967), simplifies leadership as the direction and coordination of the work of group members. The ways in which a collective group of people are motivated towards achieving their objective (Roach Behling, 1984). However, Burn’s work on transactional and transforming leadership is the Holy Grail from where other contemporary leadership thoughts have evolved. Every definition, acknowledges the relationship, of the three ingredients in the leadership mix; the leader, the follower and the purpose. Other contemporary models have evolved since, including spiritual leadership, situational leadership, contingency leadership, charismatic leadership and eastern leadership. In evaluating contemporary leadership models, I have chosen to explore the commonalities and differences of writings of three views involving spiritual leadership, transforming leadership and contingency models. I will analyze each model within the context of a developing country; particularly Nigeria, where corruption, education and governance are major handicap to development. Spiritual Leadership Spiritual leadership according to  Spiritual Leadership As Intrinsic Motivation  (2013), is â€Å"intrinsically motivating and inspiring workers through hope/faith in a vision of service to key stakeholders and a corporate culture based on  the values of altruistic love to produce a highly motivated, committed and productive workforce† (para. 1). The word spirituality quickly brings religion and its tenets to mind. Crossman (2003), differentiates spirituality from religion as a private experience, and religion as an organized process involving the public, using sacred writings and ceremonials (Crossman, 2003). Within the context of this paper, spirituality transcends religion and any particular religious beliefs and bias, because in general, spirituality is seen by many writers as an intimate and private relationship and experience (Houston Sokolow, 2006, Speck, 2005). According to Speck (2005) it is a matter of ones own heart (pp. 8-12). The law also protects and provides for individuals to practice and define their personal spirituality (Lowery, 2005). There are divergent views for the resurgence of spiritual leadership. Crossman (2003) attributes the resurgence to recent interest to find answers to social ills, the influence of all-inclusive ideas and change in scientific ideas that have influenced society. Cavanagh and Bandsuch (2002), have attributed the resurgence to disclosures by notable public figures about the positive influence of spirituality on their careers. These ideas have motivated other leadership scholars to revisit the subject. Others have found increasing annoyance and displeasure with greediness as the reason for the reemergence of spiritual leadership (Hoppe, 2005). All of the above reasons, point to one singular fact, a displeasure with the leadership status quo and need for new way of thinking about the leadership phenomenon. There appears to be more commonalities in the spiritual leadership discourse than there are disparities. A leadership style aligned with faith and hope draws many sympathizing views. Benefits of spiritual leadership such as improved self-confidence and stress management have been identified by both Crossman (2010) and Fairholm (2003). Every profession, organization and society will benefit from a leadership style that will improve the morale of staff, improve shareholder value and help staff reduce stress. This is of particular benefit to developing countries like Nigeria, where spiritualism is highly revered. Having a system of leadership that the people already believe in, will significantly improve employee morale and productivity for organizations. Other areas where spiritual leadership scholars share identical views, is in the area of the relationship of spiritualism and business. Both Sumner (1959), and Durkheim (1915/1968) share similar view. Sumner states, that because of the difference in purposes between spirituality and business, they have never been successfully associated. Durkheim (1968) stated, â€Å"the sacred and the profane cannot co-exist in the same place† (pp. 344-349). A more graphic representation was by Metcalfe (2008), referring to the relationship as a fearful prospect if spirituality sets up tent with businesses; which he terms as irrational, manipulative and insane. Drawing from their discomfort with the integration of spirituality with business, one is left to question, in which environment and organization, is the leader with spiritual attributes most suited and in what context could it be implemented. Crossman (2003), answers this question by citing several organizations that have incorporated spiritual perspectives into their corporate proclamations. Example include Amway, Pratt, Toms of Maine, Tickler and Ford. Within the context of a developing country such as Nigeria, the spiritual leadership model will be well received. Nigerians perceive everything spiritual with holism and sacredness. It follows therefore, in a country where corruption and governance is rife, a leadership model that is akin to values of faith and hope will attract the followers to the leadership for a common goal. According to Sendjaya, Sarros, and Santora (2008)  Ã¢â‚¬Å"serving others in organizations and the wider society as an act of obedience and gratitude to a higher power† (pp. 404-408). This quality of service, beyond self, is a necessary ingredient for elevating the morale of followers; which  is a desperately needed remedy in the Nigerian context. Transformational Leadership Burns, the father of contemporary leadership thinking, as part his seminal work on leadership, also propagated the now popular transformation and transaction leadership theories. As expected, his work has generated plenty interest and variation. The most popular variation of the transformation leadership theory, is the work by Bass. Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) are different sides of the same coin. Bass (1985) transformational theory was an offshoot of Burns (1978) initial transformation concept. Beyond the initial idea and the similarity in name, little more related the works of both men. Bass’s work was changed from transformation leadership to transformational leadership. To Burns, the difference between transformational and transactional leadership is about what they offer each other. Transformational leaders, he argues, provide a solution that transcends immediate satisfaction, but instead focuses on higher order fundamental needs (Judge Piccolo, 2004). Bass transformational leadership is about the transformation of the follower, in a one-way directional influence, dissimilar to Burns, where through the interaction of leader and follower, the leader also gets transformed (Cuoto, (1993). In the area of usage, Bass’s work was focused in formal organizations i. e. schools, military, businesses whilst Burns leadership research is within politics and social sectors (Cuoto, 1993). In contrast, Burns (1978), researched on the relationship between leaders and followers, within a political environment. Bass’s focus on traditional organizations is an indication that his work is most applicable to corporate organizations, whose objective is profit maximization and value creation for shareholders. According to Cuoto (1993), Bass’s focus was in formal 20th century organizational setting, where profit maximization, management and strategies blend. Both Burns (1978) and Bass (1985), transformational theories could easily be applicable in the context of a developing nation such as Nigeria. Burn’s model will suit a political setting to groom leaders with character and empathy and Bass’s proposal will help transform leadership in a corporate environment, for the maximization of profit and growth. Contemporary Leadership There are two popular contemporary models of leadership that will be analyzed; Fiedler’s contingency theory and Vroom and Yetton’s normative approach. Feiedler’s work is centered around task motivated and relationship motivated leadership styles, while Vroom and Yetton’s work is focused on three decision making styles of leadership; autocratic, consultative and group (Chemers, 1984). However, they both agree that, there is no one best way for leaders to make decisions, rather the characteristics of the situation determines the best approach. This approach is reminiscent of flexibility in the decision making process and the ability to respond to change effectively. Other similarities between Fieldler and Vroom and Yetton, is their identical predictions concerning the effectiveness and efficiency of autocratic and participative decision styles (Chemers, 1984). Interestingly, Bass also contributes to the conversation, regarding decision-making styles in leadership. He identified five decision-making styles called directive, negotiative, consultative, participative, and delegative (Chemers, 1984). Their most notable disparity between these two models of contemporary leadership scholars, is in the area of leadership ability to quickly change their decision styles. The normative model argues, that leaders can quickly change their style to adapt to situational circumstance, whilst Fielder argues that leaders are of a certain type, with well-formed attributes that are difficult to reshape (Chermers, 1984). Conclusion In conclusion, all the contemporary leadership models we have analyzed, bear their roots from the great work by Burns (1978), giving recognition to the follower and exalting the sacrosanct role of the leadership function. The leader he argues, provides a need beyond material and tangible satisfaction which uplifts the follower. In return, the follower responses to every suggestion and direction given by the leader. This dynamics of this leader, follower relationship set the ball rolling for other seminal work in leadership, including Bass (1985), Chermers (1984) and (Avolio Bass, 1995). African countries, such as Nigeria and other third world countries, seriously lack effective leadership, which is effecting economic development (Guest, 2013). A testament to the fact is, the Mo Ibrahim Leadership Award, has only been won three times since its inception seven years ago. We have here, a blue print for tackling most kinds of leadership challenges. Our leaders should lend their ears and eyes to the transformational change and wise counsel of leadership scholars.

Ancient Greek Theatre | Lysistrata

Ancient Greek Theatre | Lysistrata Ancient Greek theatre has been a fascination to millions of people across the centuries. Theatre is one of the most important innovations of the Greek civilization. Ancient Greek theatre which began as a religious ceremony eventually became as expressed by Cohen a mixture of myth, legend, philosophy, social commentary, poetry, dance, music, public participation, and visual splendor (as cited in Phillips, 2000). The well known playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes and others have contributed largely in the teachings of nobleness, morality, courage, and patriotism throughout time. Many of the stories written Oedipus, Medea, Antigone etc. have endured the passage of time. Moreover, audiences contribution was crucial in ancient Greek theatre because poets success and recognition as good representatives of the Greek culture and civilization largely depended on the audiences negative/positive feedback. From the Antiquity, the role of Greek theatre has not altered. It wa s and still is used to be entertaining, frivolous, and instructional. Greek theaters were located in outdoor spaces which were known as amphitheaters. The amphitheater was purposely chosen by the Greeks to hold these venues not only because they preferred being outdoors but also because they used the construction methods available in their time period to create the most useful and efficient space possible to be used in producing the type of entertainment that was popular in their culture as stated by John Holloway (2010). Greek theatre consisted of four major components: the Orchestra which was the circular dancing floor where the chorus would sing, dance, and act together with the actors, Theatron which was the viewing place, Skene which was the tent or the decorated building behind the stage, and Parados which was the passageways used by the chorus, actors, and audience as entrances and exits to the amphitheater (as shown in figure 1). Figure 1 Greek Theatre Note. This figure is retreived from http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/ search?q=cache:v9_sNzGD5hsJ:www.slideshare.net Nevertheless, ancient Greek theatre cannot be demonstrated without shedding the light on Athens. Athens was a Greek city-state identified for its political, military, and cultural power. Athens was considered the center of Greek culture and theatre. Greek theatre originally initiated with Athens festivals. Athens had four festivals for worshipping the god of fertility and wine Dionysus who was the son of the god Zeus and the mortal Semele. The Athenians celebrated their annual fertility four tribal festivals known as Festival of the Wine Jugs and Old Dionysia in March with a whole week of public wine drinking and phallus, penis worshipping religious orgy (Cohen,n.d.;Phillips, 2000). The religious rites for these festivals eventually took the shape of poetry that later developed to become plays. Greek plays and drama started as an entertaining event that developed to become a powerful medium of communicating ideas. Theatre played an important role in the ancient Greek civilization because it was reflecting the flaws and values of the Greek culture. It mainly focused on solving the human conflicts and problems of the day but with a supernatural element (god or goddess). The theatre that focused on exposing societys flaws benefited the audience who would learn from them. It should be noted here that the body language used in the Greek theatre played an important role in delivering the message to the spectators. As said by Heins-Uwe Haus (1995), We feel obliged to visualize the events of the play, if we want to grasp something of the spirit and the roots of the dramatic heritage of Sophocles. It was this fusion of the artistic and the political, the formal and the philosophical, that made this experience unique. Therefore, the people in Greece were on intimate relations with th e body where they used body language as a major part of the Greek drama. After scrutinizing the Greek drama, it becomes obvious that gods in Greek society were viewed in human terms. For instance, gods can have emotions of sadness, happiness, and emotions of love; they can hold grudges, and can fight with each other. The gods in Greek plays were, like humans, uncertain of their destiny. Additionally, humanity was strongly concerned in ancient Greek drama where humans were elevated from animals. Human harmony depended on the interaction between human and divine forces where peace would be endangered if disharmony existed (Tripod members, 2004). Figure 2. Theatre Masks Note. Retrieved from http://www.crystalinks.com/greektheater.html Greek plays consisted of two major types: tragedy and comedy. The two masks, in figure 2, symbolize both the comedy and tragedy aspects of the Greek Theatre. These two masks that represent duality were worn in ancient Greece during the golden age, around 500 300 BC. With respect to tragedy, it was expressed by Aristotle as: an imitation of an important and complete action, which has a specific length, written in an embellished language, with its separate parts set in order and not randomly, in active and not narrative form, tending through pity and fear to the catharsis of passions. The word tragedy was derived from the words Tragos meaning goat and ode meaning song. The reason behind this vague origin had to do with two possibilities: the first which was related to the choruses who were dressed in lion-skins of goats, and the second which was linked to the prize for best song that was a goat. Ancient Greek tragedy mainly depended on stories of myth or history but with varied interpretations of events. It mainly focused on psychological and ethical attributes of characters instead of physical and sociological ones. Tragedy was dominated by the works and innovations of three well-known playwrights: Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.) who was known for his tragic trilogy the Oresteia which enlarge the possibilities for dramatics through the com munication between two characters in his plays. Aeschylus made use of a third character; however, Sophocles (496-406 B.C.) was the one who actually began it. The latter was known for his trilogy Oedipus Rex where his plays decreased the job of the chorus in Greek drama in order to enhance the interaction between characters and the progress of the character itself. The third tragedian was Euripides (480-406 B.C.) who indicated the ultimate form of drama and employed a more naturalistic and human aspects in his plays. An example of tragedy can be the famous speech of Macbeth (Tripod members, 2004): Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, To the last syllable of recorded time; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! Lifes but a walking shadow; a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more: It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. With respect to comedy, the word comedy was derived from Comoi which was the name of a god meaning amusement and entertainment. It was usually based on a happy idea that used exaggerated, ridiculous, and sensual pleasures; for instance, a peace with a power or sex strike to stop war. Comedy plays commented and criticized contemporary society, politics, literature and Peloponnesian War. Two playwrights were famous in this domain: Aristophanes (448-380 B.C.) and Menander (342-292 B.C.). Comedy was not as popular as tragedy at first. However, the popularity of Comedy was accompanied with the diminishing of the popularity of tragedy which highly represented the role of theatre. Therefore, tragedy was at its peak in Greek society when the society was at its height whereas comedy (a means for decreasing frustrations) was at its peak during the decline of Greek government. A good example of comedy can be a funny tale about a strong woman Lysistrata who led a female union to stop the war in Greece. This play, written by Aristophanes, can be a good demonstration of the role of women in ancient Greek time. Women, in this play, were revealed as deceiving, mischievous, strong, smart, cunning, and as being leaders. Lysistratas cunning was shown through her great plan of refusing sex by the wives to their husbands. She knew that by refusing sex, peace would be gained since men would not be able to resist this situation. Moreover, what revealed the cleverness of women was when they took over the Akropolis. Lysistrata was able to give a speech on how to run the government and was capable of changing the situations that she didnt like; she was a true clever leader. For instance, Lysistrata mentioned: If we sat around at home all made up, and walked past them wearing only our see-through underwear and with our pubes plucked in a neat triangle, and our husbands got hard and hankered to ball us, but we didnt go near them and kept away, theyd sue for peace, and pretty quick, you can count on that! (as cited in Gruber-Miller, 1987). Also, Lysistrata said: The older women are assigned that part: while were working out our agreement down here, theyll occupy the Akropolis, pretending to be up there for a sacrifice (as cited in Gruber-Miller, 1987). The Warriors in Lysistrata said (Tripod members, 2004): First Speaker: For through mans heart there runs in flood A natural and noble taste for blood Second Speaker: To form a ring and fight Third Speaker: To cut off heads at sight All in Unison: It is our right! Youth Come, listen now to the good old days when children, strange to tell, were seen not heard, led a simple life, in short were brought up well. Although women were not permitted to engage in ancient Greek plays or even to be with the audience, women made their own festivals in order to gather and discuss their issues with each other. Women played an important role in the Greek society; it was like what people nowadays in our society say behind a great man there is a woman. It was the same case where behind every hero there was a woman. Greek theatre spread its cultural influences to Egypt, the Middle East, Rome, and then the whole world. This indicates how much the Greek theatre has influenced our modern theater. Without ancient theater, the form of entertainment nowadays may not have existed. As indicated by Rebekah Martin (2006):Without the influences of Dionysus festivals and Greek drama, Shakespeare would have no foundation, and Andrew Lloyd Webber would be out of a job. Therefore, the roots of drama have affected everything from radio drama to modern cinema.

Drama Therapy In Reduction Of Vicarious Trauma Psychology Essay

Drama Therapy In Reduction Of Vicarious Trauma Psychology Essay Drama therapy is defined as an intentional and systematic application of drama/ theater processes, products, and associations towards achieving therapeutic goals of symptom relief, emotional and physical integration and individual/personal growth. Therefore, the goals of drama therapy are established from psychotherapy and the tools to achieve these goals are derived from theater Children use drama as therapy spontaneously, with no outside direction or pre-imposed structure. Dramatic play is the childs method of: symbolically expressing and resolving internal conflict; assimilating reality; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦releasing pent-up emotions; learning to control potentially destructive impulses through fantasy; expressing unaccepted parts of the self; exploring problems and discovering solutions; expressing hopes and wishes;à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and developing a sense of identity (cited in Emunah, 1994, p.4). These fundamental dramatic play functions in childrens lives are also relevant to everybody regardless of age towards building psychological growth and change. These plays help client to tell his or her story to solve a problem, achieve catharsis, extend the depth and breadth of inner experiences, understand the meaning of images, and strengthen the ability to observe personal roles while increasing flexibility between roles (Emunah, 1994) The experience by psychotherapists of failure of traditional verbal therapy to confront and work through client discomfort led to the evolving of drama therapy. The balance of verbal and non-verbal elements of play therapy together with its language of metaphor enables individual to work effectively within a therapeutic session. Trauma experiences that have been proved to be toxic to peoples life can be recapitulated to workers who are supposed to be helping the traumatized clients. This has detrimental impact on the clients and also can lead to demoralization of help givers and wastage of resources. It can also lead to the belief that the clients receiving the help are the cause of the problem and that the clients condition is hopeless and they cannot be assisted or helped. This transfer of trauma from the client to the care giver is known as vicarious traumatization (Kellermann, 1992). Vicarious trauma is inevitable while dealing with clients who have suffered major losses or suffered terrible events. It cannot be avoided but can be modified or reduced through drama therapy (Jones, 1996). Vicarious Traumatization Vicarious traumatization also known as secondary traumatization is the impacts of working with clients who have experienced trauma through the narration of their story about the experiences. It is called secondary because the person affected by the trauma has no direct link with the event that led to the trauma but experiences the trauma indirectly through their client (Andersen et al, 2000). A good example is of workers helping the refugees. Since the refugees have suffered major losses and life-shattering events, those working with refugee such as teachers, medical doctors, and immigration workers among others will be subject to vicarious traumatization and its impacts. Vicarious traumatization is usually a slow, cumulative process that takes place in the course of hearing many stories of loss and pain (Emunah, 1994 Axline, 1947). This makes it difficult to detect its impacts on the care givers lives. In most cases the care givers do not realize that they are suffering from vicari ous traumatization until when it is too late and they have burned out. The impact of vicarious traumatization like the impacts of trauma itself is serious and can be permanent. It interferes with the care givers/workers ability to do their work effectively and this highlights the need to recognize, monitor, and minimize the effects of vicarious traumatization on workers lives (Kellermann, 1992). Understanding Vicarious Traumatization and Its Impacts As defined above, vicarious traumatization is the experience of trauma related stress that is often caused by working closely with trauma victims. Trauma in definition is any experience involving serious threat personal harm or harm to others and excessive negative emotions like fear, helplessness, rage, and grief. These experiences can happen at any time of the life of individuals who have gone major losses or suffered terrible occurances for instance in a refugee life it can occur during resettlement process or any other phase of a refugee life (Jones, 1996). It is not possible to hear stories of tragic losses, human brutal harassments, gross injustice, and needless suffering and remain unaffected by such stories by workers who encounter human suffering on daily basis. The only way to remain unaffected is only by choosing to be numb by blocking our senses but this most often leads to ineffectiveness in service delivery and can also lead to depression and other associated problems(Jones, 1996). The fact is that we are changed by the nature of our work usually in ways we do not want. For example a volunteer who is optimistic on him/herself towards helping refugee may change drastically and become increasingly cynical and discouraged because of the unique stress emanating from his/her job (Andersen et al, 2000). Vicarious traumatization can take various forms which are determined by an individual and the work environment. The fact that people response to stress are different, there is no single symptom or set of signs that provide absolute evidence of vicarious traumatization or an exhaustive list showing all the signs and symptoms. Nevertheless, many of the impacts of vicarious traumatization are similar to the impacts of the trauma itself. Some of the signs and symptoms of vicarious traumatization include; fatigue, depression, withdrawal from other or from activities, loss of trust, demoralization, cynicism, disillusionment, lack of sleep, loss of sense of humor, lack of emotional control and strong emotional reactions to minor occurrences, and difficulty ,making decision among other symptoms (Kellermann, 1992). Like water flowing over a rock in a stream, on daily basis nothing seems to be happening to the rock but several years later, have of the rock will be worn out. Similarly, vicarious traumatization is cumulative and on a day-to-day basis, we may hardly realize that we are experiencing stress. Eventually the vicarious traumatization wears us down and if not dealt with, it leaves us in an exhausted position. Once in this exhausted position we are unable to think clearly, make rational judgments, listen carefully, or even help others effectively (Jones, 1996). In addition, attributes such as cynicism, disillusionment, despair among others becomes part of our permanent identities (Carey, 1990). These are serious and damaging impacts. Fortunately, such impacts can be reduced by taking an active role of reducing such stresses that are associated with working closely with trauma survivors. The first step towards addressing vicarious traumatization is to accept that such trauma does exist and have an understanding of the contributing factors of vicarious traumatization (Sue, 1994). Management of Vicarious Traumatization through Drama Therapy Some researchers argue that dramatic activities do encourage a removal from the reality which is an escapist way of being, relating to others, and relating to the world. Others argue that theatre and life are totally different states and if they do relate, it is only within the confines of a theatre with its formal demarcation of performance and audience areas. Some argument view adult dramatization as being regressive returning to the experience of the child in play. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that drama and living are virtually connected. As Evreinov wrote theater is a human impulse necessary to health living (cited in Jones, 1996). Drama therapy acknowledges that a part of this want and impulse can be employed in the maintenance of health and coping with emotional and psychological problems (De Dominico, 1988 Gil, 1994). The creation of world of fictions, play world, and the creative process itself does not need only to be seen in the perspective of an unhelpful retreat fr om the reality but rather be seen as an important part of living in the world. Creativity in drama therapy has a healing, life-affirming aspect. The fantasies and the artistic daydreams help in conquering the painful limits of existence. They also help in dealing with our basic conflicts (Carey, 2006). Over the past two decades, acknowledgement of drama as a therapy has changed and this has led to the emergence of drama therapy as practiced today. These changes have two main aspects as observed by Jones that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦drama therapy session can deal with primary processes involved in the clients change rather than being adjunct to other ways of working, such as psychotherapyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that the root of this process is in the drama. Dram therapy is not viewed by those who support it as a psychotherapy group containing dramatic activities but rather the drama process contains the therapy itself (Jones, 1996). Drama therapy techniques Various elements of drama therapy combined together make drama therapy effective. These elements explain the way in which drama processes are therapeutic. These elements are not specific to any drama technique but their focus is on fundamental processes within all drama therapy. The key areas of drama and theatre which are of essence to drama therapist includes; the process of entry into playing as a character, entry into dramatic state, dramatic communication, relationship between the dramatic frame and real life frame, performance processes, and the audience together with the process of witnessing in theatre. These drama elements are essential in developing the healing power of drama and theatre and out of them there emerges series of dramatic processes which are crucial towards making drama therapy effective(Carey, 2006, Sue, 1994). The first core drama process is dramatic projection. Wilshire in his work Role Playing and Identity describes the relationship between stage space and audience in a way that help us to see how drama projection relates to drama therapy. He observes that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the constant attractions and the needs for theatre is that we see ourselves writ large' (Wilshire, 1982cited in Emunah, 1994). According to this observation, seeing ourselves the way we are leads toward changing oneself according to the way we understand or see ourselves which may include a change in our perspective. In addition, as an audience, we may identify with some of characters on the stage through motivation, experience or attitude. This may also be accompanied with projection of our own motivations, feelings and experience according to the direction provided by the actor. Drama content and action witnessed by the audience can lead to a shift of their relationship with the projected feelings during or after the p erformance. In turn, this may affect the way the audience understand and feel about part of themselves that have been engaged with the projection (Sue, 1997). This projection and identification with the drama scene are not only to the clients that could be suffering from trauma experiences but also to the therapist who from the traditional verbal expression may be a subject to vicarious traumatization because they are actively involved as an actor or audience and also the way the client expresses his or her inner feelings through acting has lesser vicarious traumatization impacts. Though some theory such as classic freud sees projection and identification as a defensive process, the drama therapy sees it as an important process that develops important relationship between inner emotions and external forms and presences (Weber et al, 2005 Carey, 2006). The other core process of drama therapy is the therapeutic performance process. This process includes need identification, rehearsal, showing, and disengagement. There are two impacts within this process. The process enables the client to find expression for the material to be worked on and the working means with the material. During rehearsal and showing, client can shift their relationship to personal material by playing different role in the enactment or by directing alternative ways of the play. The focus here is to explore the content displayed by the client (Emunah, 1994). Clients and therapists may become role player or an audience member for a while. Taking these roles may be therapeutic for both the clients and the therapist for it provides an opportunity for a change in the link with the material or shift in perspective concerning the expressed material. The client and therapist involvement with the medium of drama through acting may allow them to experience their own creat ivity. Eventually they may be able to bring this creativity to bear upon the problem being focused within the action. This creativity may necessitate a change as the client and the therapist is able to address the problematic material from various perspectives (Sue, 1994). For instance, outside drama therapy session, a client or therapist may be stuck with a problem but they may feel capable of finding the solution through creatively engaging and experimenting new alternatives in the drama (Miller, 1994). Empathy and distancing which are other processes within drama are often two opposing powers within theatre and drama therapy. But it would be beneficial if we see both as part of any reaction that result from a dramatic phenomenon either in a theatre or therapy. One may be established more strongly than the other but it is irrational to describe a response as being completely distanced or empathized. Empathy and distancing are associated to mediation and the ways in which an individual interact with others and happenings in life. As Landy observes, healthy functioning requires a balance of feeling and thought (Landy, 1986, 98 cited in Emunah, 1994 ). Empathy creates a bond between the actor and the audience. It is determined by the capabilities of the audience to identify with and engage their emotions with the character. It can also be evident within the character themselves through the role they are acting with. On the other hand, distancing is where the character does not allow to tal transformation on the stage into the character he is acting (Miller, 1994). Empathy development in dramatic activities is therapeutic in itself. For instance clients may have a problem of establishing relationship due to lack of abilities to empathize with other. Empathetic responses during therapy sessions encourage the client to empathize with others outside the drama therapy. On the other hand, distancing encourages participation that is more focused towards thought, reflection and perspective. This means that the client function as a reader to the material without being disengaged from the material but involved with it from a different angle (Allen, 1988). This helps the client to develop perspective on themselves or an event. The degree of response, of empathy and distancing within an action can be used as an instrument in the assessment of clients relationship with the material they present (Emunah, 1994). Drama representation is described as the means chosen to express material within a drama session. Two particular elements common within drama practice are personification and impersonation. Personification is representing a person quality using objects dramatically. Impersonation on the other hand refers to role playing of an imaginary person (Miller, 1994). These two elements provide the client or the therapist a given focus of expression and exploration of problems and concerns. It enables the client to have a taste of what it is to be another (Emunah, 1994). This links the process of developing empathy and eventually developing the ways a client interacts with others. It can also help in the process of viewing a problematic circumstance from the point of view of another person. Participation of fictional material through personification and impersonations can develop opportunities to change and explore the concern in a new direction. This fictional world enables client exploration s which the client might deny in the normal life circumstances. Play activities which is another process in drama therapy is described as the expressive language in the therapeutic sessions. In early stages, a play usually contains games and warm up activities. A state of playfulness is developed and the client enters into a special playing state. This playful session has a link with reality. The links are exhibited by a more creative, flexible attitude towards action, impacts and held ideas. This allows the client to adopt a playful, experimenting direction towards themselves and their life encounters (Miller, 1994). . This makes play to be seen as part of an expressive continuum using specific language such object play, toys, and games among others which is seen as part of hoe the client explores material in drama therapy (Weber et al, 2005).. Conclusion In many occasions, work in drama therapy involves a direct dramatic representation of reality for instance playing a role of real life event or an improvised experience. At other time it is indirect relationship with real life event. Many activities give a number of various types of connection simultaneously. For example a realistic role play of relationship between a client and her mother, exploring unaddressed problem may have various importance. To the client presenting material, to the other actors and audience, the relationship, may symbolize a struggle between self and personified by the mother and daughter (Miller, 1994).. The process of being involved in drama activities and the potential creativity of enactment can bring transformation in a persons life. This is as result of transformation of identity- the artist in the client is established within drama therapy. The development of dramatic products, the participation in dramatic process can result to a combination of thinki ng, feeling and creativity (Sue, 1994). This combination has a potential to transform different aspects of clients way of understanding and responding to themselves and the world. The interactions which the client forms in the drama therapy can be transformative experience. Past interactions, events and ways of addressing them cab be brought into the current drama therapy and be reworked within the drama.

Docking With Mir :: essays research papers

Docking With Mir Last year something amazing took place, but it wasn't in a laboratory. It wasn't under the ocean, and it wasn't on the land. It was in space. The docking of the United States's Space Shuttle Atlantis and the Russian Space Station Mir was an important step towards international cooperation in space. This is not the first time the U.S. has been in contact with Russia in space matters. In 1965, an American Apollo capsule and a Russian Soyuz module were locked in orbital tango 245 miles above the earth, both crews tense with the feeling of peace and rivalry at the same time. In the past few years, American astronauts have used the Russian training facility at the Cosmodrome to prepare for work on the Mir space station. We couldn't give up the hope of peace and freedom.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Launch Day had arrived; June 29, 1995. During launch and ascent, there wasn't much to think about except the thrill of the ride. Then the tension rose. In less than thirty-six hours, they would have to close a gap of four thousand miles at an altitude of 245 miles while traveling at 17,500 miles per hour, only to have to move within three inches and two degrees of a quickly moving, very fragile object in space. One small thrust of a poorly aligned engine could cost one of four space-worthy shuttles and the world's first and only long-term space station.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Docking was over with soon, and was followed by the cosmonauts of Mir greeting the astronauts of Atlantis. Gifts of flowers, candy and fruit were given by the Americans, who in return, following a Russian tradition, received gifts of bread and salt. Knowing the importance of the mission, the Russians, as well as the Americans, forced the good nature of the mission to be seen. After an exchange in the crew of Mir, Atlantis disengaged the docking clamps, and returned home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This mission was important to the future of the conquest of space, for the American scientists need help with the design of the planned International

freeaw Not Ready for Freedom in Kate Chopins The Awakening Essay

Not Ready for Freedom in The Awakening  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Kate Chopin’s The Awakening, the main character, Edna Pontellier makes a very long, painful journey into her inner self. At the end of this journey she discovers that she is not strong enough to adopt a life in which a woman is her own woman and lives for herself. This forces her to choose the only other option available to her. I think the propriety with which Edna struggles (and most often gives in to) as she begins to discover who she is and what she wants creates a thick, almost suffocating atmosphere of tension. So much so that I was relieved that she decided to take her own life, as it had evolved into a torturous existence. I thought it unfair that Edna was portrayed as a somewhat neglectful mother. It was clear that she adored her children, albeit a fondness that was in â€Å"...an uneven, impulsive way.† (p. 59) It is important to focus on the time this story was written---the choices available to women in 1899 (the year The Awakening was printed) were extremely limited, and Edna Pontellier, all things considered, actually made a good life for herself, on the surface by making a marriage with Leonce. The material trappings in life that Leonce provided were comfortable, extravagant, actually, and the luxurious life of servants (quadroons), and more than one home appeared to be a life of perfection. Buried within the text are a multitude of â€Å"hints,† â€Å"suggestions,† and in some cases blatant statements concerning the state of mind of Edna Pontellier. The reader is introduced to the possibility that Edna may have a healthy curiosity of the â€Å"absence of prudery† due to her fascination with the lives of Creole women. These women of French descent have far les... ...se population. Edna Pontellier was a lady of ladies, yet she had a will stronger than any iron-clad vessel that plowed the Mississippi River. Her â€Å"awakening† was at once liberating and devastating. Her anger (throwing the vase and her wedding band) was a manifestation of her confusion and inability to comprehend the society that insisted she receive guests on Tuesday (her husband Leonce was appalled that she left one day and did her own thing), be a wife and mother first, and love only one man. Although her demise was indeed tragic, the point is that Edna was not entirely ready to absolutely adopt the Creole way of life---the life in which a woman is her own woman and lives for herself, stands up to the world and insists on having life on her terms. In the end, Edna could not reconcile herself to a life that stepped outside the boundaries of propriety.   

Three Theories of Cognitive Development

Three Theories of Cognitive Development The Swiss psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is well-known for his work towards the cognitive sciences. Arguably one of his most important contributions involves his theory of cognitive development. In this theory, thinking progresses through four distinct stages between infancy and adulthood. Similar in scope to Piaget’s theory is Information Processing, in which human thinking is based on both mental hardware and mental software (Kail, Cavanaugh). A final theory on cognitive development was established by the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).Vygotsky proposed that development is a collaborative effort between child and partner. While these three theories attempt to explain a similar topic in different manners, each can be considered an important aspect to cognitive development in infancy and early childhood. Through analyzing and comparing these theories, scientists are able to better understand how child development occurs and the process it takes in creating a functional human being. Piaget’s Theory Children are naturally curious: this is the claim Piaget proposed when explaining that children of all ages create theories about how the world around them works.They accomplish this through the use of â€Å"schemes,† referring to mental structures that organize information and regulate behavior. Infants group objects based on the actions they can perform on them. Later in development, schemes become based on functional or conceptual relationships, not action. This means that schemes of related objects, events, and ideas are present throughout development (Kail, Cavanaugh). Schemes change constantly, adapting to children’s experiences. Intellectual adaptation involves two key processes that work together: assimilation and accommodation.Assimilation is the process of taking in new information into previously existing schemes. Accommodation involves altering existing schemes in light of new information. Assimilation and accommodation are usually in equilibrium. But when disequilibrium occurs, children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium, a process Piaget called â€Å"equilibration. † According to Piaget, revolutionary changes in thought occur three times over the life span, which are divided into four stages. Sensorimotor period (0-2 years): Infants adapt and explore their environment. Reflexes are first modified by experience.At 8 months, intentional behavior occurs. Soon, infants become active experimenters, and repeat actions with different objects for the purpose of seeing what will happen. An important aspect of the first stage is object permanence- the understanding that objects exist even if they cannot be seen. Not until at about 18 months do infants have a full understanding of object permanence. Soon after, the onset of symbols, including words and gestures, become apparent. Preoperational thinking (2-7 years): Children do not understand others’ different ideas and emotions (egocentrism). They also have trouble focusing on multiple features.A child in the preoperational stage has a narrowly focused type of thought (a term Piaget called centration). For example, in what is known as a conservation problem, children tend to focus on only one aspect of the problem. In conservation of length, they concentrate on the fact that, after the transformation, the end of one stick is farther to the right than the end of the other, when in fact each stick is similar in length. Concrete operational period (7-11 years): This stage is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. A child is able to sort objects according to its size, shape, etc.Also, children will now take into account multiple aspects of a problem. For example, a child will no longer perceive a wide and short cup to contain more liquid than a normal, tall cup. Egocentrism begins to disappear: the child can now view things from another’s perspective (even though that person may be wrong). Formal operational period (11 years and up): Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think more abstractly, reason logically, and draw conclusions from information available. Also changing is the way an adolescent thinks about social matters.The future is beginning to be thought of in relation to what he or she can become. Information Processing In this view, human thinking is based on mental hardware (allows the mind to operate) and mental software (basis for performing particular tasks). There are several different aspects to this theory. Learning and cognitive development can happen through habituation, classical and operant conditioning, and imitation. Habituation is the diminished response to a stimulus as it becomes more familiar. Constantly responding to insignificant stimuli is wasteful, so habituation keeps infants from devoting too much energy to non-important events.In classical c onditioning, a stimulus elicits a response that was originally produced by another stimulus. No new behaviors are learned, but an association is developed (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J). For example, a toddler may frown when he hears water running in the bathroom because he realizes that it is time for a bath. Operant conditioning emphasizes reward and punishment. This helps children form expectations about what will happen in their environment. Imitation is important in older children and adolescents. This process entails a â€Å"watch and learn† kind of approach.A boy can learn how to play basketball by watching a professional athlete, and an infant may imitate an adult waving her finger back and forth. A special kind of memory, â€Å"autobiographical memory,† emerges in the preschool years. These are memories of significant events and experiences in one’s own life. Infants have basic memory skills that enable them to remember past events. In addition to these skil ls are the language skills and sense of self obtained during the preschool years. Vygotsky’s Theory Lev Vygotsky incorporated the role that society and culture have on an individual throughout cognitive development.According to Vygostky, children rarely grow cognitively by themselves; they learn and progress when they have others by their side. This is contrasting to Piaget’s theory and Information Processing, where the individual growth takes place mostly alone. In his theory, Vygotsky developed the idea of the zone of proximal development. This refers to the â€Å"zone† between the level of performance a child can achieve when working independently and a higher level of performance that is possible when working under the guidance of more skilled adults or peers.This follows the idea that cognition develops first in a social setting and slowly comes under the child’s control. A factor that aids this shift is known as scaffolding. This is a style of teach ing in which the teacher decides the amount of assistance given to match what the child actually needs. Scaffolding is based off the premise that children do not learn readily when they are constantly told what to do or when they are left to struggle through a problem. Finally, Vygotsky viewed private speech as an â€Å"intermediate step toward self-regulation of cognitive skills. Private speech can be defined as comments that are not intended for anyone else but the child to hear, and are designed to help children regulate their behavior. This theory holds that cognitive development is not characterized as a solitary undertaking, but a collaboration between expert and novice. Compare and Contrast All of these theories attempt to measure the biological and psychological changes apparent in child development. They look to categorize specific behaviors, and associate them with current stages in growth. However, each theory is different in that it looks for different behavior patterns .Also, Piaget’s Theory and the Information Processing Theory can be grouped together due to the fact that they look at a child as an independent being, not cognitively dependent on its environment. However, Vygotsky views a child’s development as being reliable upon its surroundings (e. g. its peers, parents, teachers etc). Disputes These three theories are just that; theories. None of them have been scientifically proven and accepted by all scientists. Instead, they have formed the basis by which we conduct study and research of cognitive development today.Theories will always be open to criticism and review, and Piaget’s theory has specifically been scrutinized by scientists and researchers. Some believe that Piaget underestimated the cognitive competence in infants and young children. A main theme of modern child development is that of an extremely competent infant. Also, many scientists have found that certain components of Piaget’s theory are not tes table. For example, accommodation and assimilation prove to be too vague to test scientifically. In Vygosky’s Theory, some critics point out the overemphasizing of the role of language.Also, his â€Å"emphasis on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls if facilitators are too helpful in some cases. An example of that would be an overbearing and controlling parent. † Criticism is not meant to diminish the importance of these theories, but to foster more research in the field of cognitive development and improve our understanding of how children grow. Conclusion These three theories of cognitive development are meant to measure something that is physically not able to be measured. They take a look at how children behave, and attempt to classify each behavior accordingly.